Alternative Processes: The Case for Education for Archivists

While digital technology sweeps through photography, making simulated access to advanced techniques and long-forgotten processes available to the rank amateur (Echevarria et al.), there is much to be said about the photographic process expert’s place in the world of archives, as well as the value of her expertise in alternative photographic processes when assessing historical collections. In fact, a practicing alternative process printer (i.e., one involved in producing platinum-palladium, gum bichromate, and cyanotype prints, or one who is experienced with toning and mordencage processes, for example) is an enormous asset to archives in which such photographs are housed or sought. In an age where traditional methods are falling by the wayside and digital photography and manipulation reign, a visual materials archivist with a background in alternative processes should be aggressively recruited in order to maintain the integrity of the widest range of holdings.

            Although the silver gelatin process is, according to the vast majority of observers, “in its death throes” (“Unfrozen in Time”) and “is in crisis” (Copeland), there is a definite underground movement to revive processes that dominated in photography’s infancy. Indeed, the Harry Ransom Center sponsored a traveling exhibit a few years back that celebrated contemporary use of historical methods, juxtaposing modern images captured in tintype or platinum next to their historical counterparts ("The Image Wrought”).  The Economist hailed the exhibit and its contents, some of which were alternative-digital hybrids, as a “flourishing” undertaking, further sparking hope in die-hard traditionalists that silver gelatin and its kin are not dying, they are evolving—and this evolution and the images it produces requires the care of those well-versed in alternative processes.

            For those archivists not traditionally trained in printing with these methods, a number of advances have been captured and published by leading conservators and scientists, most notably in several forms by The Getty Conservation Institute (GCI). As Stulik and Kaplan note, “[w]ithout knowing the chemical nature and physical structure of a photograph, it is difficult to prescribe conditions for its storage or exhibition that will help ensure its preservation, and it is difficult as well to determine appropriate conservation treatment.” It is this observation that spurred the authors to recruit a number of contemporary alternative process practitioners, as well as gather historical examples of those same methods, and examine them on the microscopic and chemical levels. Their published results are a boon to the budding visual materials archivist and conservator who may have the best intentions to preserve collections, but may not have the experience or the background in chemistry or alternative processes to know the best manner in which to assure the longevity of collections.

            In addition to the practical chemical work being done at GCI, The Getty have released a series of downloadable PDFs available through their website. Each PDF focused on a different method of alternative processes, ranging from albumen to Woddburytye, and details the identification, care, and handling of each. The PDFs have also been published in book form, titled The Atlas of Analytical Signatures of
Photographic Processes. In the Atlas, archivists and conservators can implement the extensive knowledge gleaned from Stulik and Kaplan’s laboratory work and apply it to their holdings (Abraham). The Atlas, although incredibly valuable to those who work with vintage photographs and those produced using alternative methods, cannot, however, replace the knowledge gained by those who are employed in the archival/conservatorial environment and who have also printed using these processes.

            In an increasingly digital world, archives are expected to have more and more digital holdings, and many images being introduced to repositories are born-digital. While one can anticipate the essential needs and requirements of digital files and be nearly universal in that assessment no matter what the subject matter or manner in which it was produced or saved, the story is quite different when considering alternative and historically processed visual materials. A number of important and groundbreaking resources are currently available to archivists and conservators who encounter these materials, but very little can replace the knowledge gained by implementing these processes and making images using nearly lost arts. Although the chemicals and other materials can be difficult to come by, it is by far in the best interest of an archivist’s repository to put her in the best position possible to care for historically processed images by granting her the education and practical knowledge of alternative processes by allowing and funding her education in such matters.

Abraham, Melissa. "Getty Conservation Institute Releases Critical New Resource for Conserving Historic Photographs." The Getty Iris. The J. Paul Getty Trust, 13 Sept. 2013. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.

Copeland, Colette. "Photography in Crisis?" Afterimage 38.3 (2010): N. pag. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.

Echevarria, Jose I., Gregg Wilensky, Aravind Krisnaswamy, Byungmoon Kim, and Diego Gutierrez. "Computational Simulation of Alternative Photographic Processes." Computer Graphics Forum 32.4 (2013): 7-16. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.

Stulik, Dusan C., and Art Kaplan. "Collaborative Research: Working with the Alternative Photographic Processes Community." The Getty Conservation Institute. The J. Paul Getty Trust, n.d.. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.

""The Image Wrought: Historical Photographic Approaches in the Digital Age" Opens Jan. 31." Harry Ransom Center. Harry Ransom Center, n.d.. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.

"Unfrozen in time; Alternative photography." The Economist 4 Feb. 2006: 76(US). Infotrac Newsstand. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.

Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photographs in America

Acquiring photographs is a difficult process for any archive, and as Charbonneau suggests, it is important to always consider both the institutional and intellectual value of an incoming collection. But what happens when an archive gets a hold of a valuable and divisive photographic collection? Is there a question of ethics when an archive purchases controversial materials?

James Allen’s lynching photographs and postcards collection was temporarily housed at the Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library of Emory University in Atlanta. The result of Allen’s partnership with Emory (in partnership with the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site) culminated in the 2002 exhibition: “Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America.” A year after James Allen publicly expressed his displeasure with Emory’s managing practices and later sold the collection to the National Center for Civil and Human Rights. From what little information we have about the dispute between Allen and Emory, we can learn more about the nature of collecting controversial photographs and the difficulty in maintaining successful relationships with donors.

Antiques collector and Atlanta native James Allen, along with his partner John Littlefield, spent twenty-five years[1] collecting the one-hundred plus photographs that would later become the “Without Sanctuary” exhibition. These photos gave Allen the chance to “[Put] a face on murder and racial hatred in America for the entire world to see . . .  For the need to have an outlet for my own disgust and anger at the status quo, I have relentlessly pursued these photos. With every image acquired, and every face of the gawkers and killers that is brought to light, I sense a quieting of the hounds that have dogged me since childhood.”[2]

With this in mind it makes perfect sense that Allen wanted Emory to house the collection. The archive has two notable special collections, one focused on African American history and another on Southern Culture. Although the collection would be a good fit, the issue of purchasing these photographs raises an important question: what are the stakes in buying these photographs? When the Clark Historical Library at Central Michigan University purchased Ku Klux Klan records members of the CMU administration and outside community questioned their motives and accused the archive of supporting racism.[3] Some African Americans viewing the “Without Sanctuary” exhibition also negatively reacted to the collection and accused Allen of making a profit from the suffering of others, but others recognized the significance of introducing this period of history to a wider audience.[4] As Karen Lamoree suggests, collecting these controversial materials allows the archive to show their interest in being “fair and even handed.” Since Emory has an interest in documenting Black Southern history, they have a responsibility to include all records that are symbolic, regardless of the subject matter. These photographs, although incredibly traumatic, are an important part of American history and should be preserved.  The university made the conscious decision to host public and institutional forums to help them develop a plan to successfully share the collection.[5] Efforts like this demonstrated that the archive was invested in the collection, but wanted to understand the needs of their users.

Even so, there is something disconcerting about the reported value of these photographs. In 2003 Allen unceremoniously removed the collection from the archive after years of negotiations. The university refused to match the alleged $1 million Harvard had offered for the photographs, and Allen was also reportedly frustrated with their lack of “imagination.”[6] While the university had co-sponsored exhibitions with Allen at different institutions the archive had yet to host a showing on campus. If this was the case, was the archive supposed to immediately produce an exhibition after receiving the collection? How long would it take to fully process the collection and make it available for research? Did any of the photos needed to be restored? Why did Allen refuse to donate the entire collection for free? Would there have been an uproar if Emory decided to match Harvard’s offer?
Although this is not directly related to archival practices, the act of buying a collection such as this is a complicated issue. The collection as a whole is worthy of preservation but the idea of an archive buying what is virtually depictions of mutilation and murder is disturbing. Especially when considering that the source is a White male antiques collector. Perhaps it’s easier to accept that it better that these items are no longer available on the market, but there is still an uneasiness when discussing the purchase of controversial collections.Regrettably there is very little information on why their partnership fell apart, but it’s apparent that both the archive and the donor had very different objectives for managing this sensitive collection. It’s unfortunate that the two parties were unable to settle their differences, but there is much to learn from their story.

The photographs currently have a new home at the National Center for Human and Civil Rights, which opens in Atlanta next month.

Cited Sources:

Emory may lose rare collection of lynching photos. (noteworthy news). (2003, January 16). Black Issues in Higher Education, 19(24), 10. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA97172553&v=2.1&u=mlin_b_simmcol&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=ee908feea3c1f6764377755f55ddd6af

Boles, Frank. "“Just a bunch of bigots”; a case study in the acquisition of controversial material." Archival Issues: Journal Of The Midwest Archives Conference 19, no. 1 (January 1994): 53-65.

Charbonneau, Normand. "The Selection of Photographs" Archivaria [Online], Volume 1 Number 59 (1 January 2005)

Fears, Darryl. (2002, January 28). Atlanta, Ready to Revisit an American Evil; After Two-Year Debate, Exhibit of Images Depicting the Lynching of Blacks Will Be Shown. Washington Post, p. A03. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA82247695&v=2.1&u=mlin_b_simmcol&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=8d5cd99aef368f26e1f57ae1b5dad008

Lamoree, Karen. “Documenting the difficult or collecting the controversial.” Archival Issues: Journal Of The Midwest Archives Conference Volume: 20 Issue: 2 (1995-01-02) p. 149-153.

MOEHRINGER, J.R. SUNDAY REPORT; “an obsessive quest to make people see; after antique collector james allen discovered scores of lynching photos, black americans were grateful--and confused. was his motive compassion--or something else?” Los Angeles Times, Aug 27, 2000. http://search.proquest.com/docview/421714071?accountid=15071 (accessed April 18, 2014)

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[1] An article in Black Issues in Higher Education indicated that it was ten years but the official Without Sanctuary website claims that it was twenty-five.

[2] J.R. MOEHRINGER. 2000. SUNDAY REPORT; an obsessive quest to make people see; after antique collector james allen discovered scores of lynching photos, black americans were grateful--and confused. was his motive compassion--or something else? Los Angeles Times, Aug 27, 2000. http://search.proquest.com/docview/421714071?accountid=15071 (accessed April 18, 2014)

[3] Frank Boles. "“Just a bunch of bigots”; a case study in the acquisition of controversial material." Archival Issues: Journal Of The Midwest Archives Conference 19, no. 1 (January 1994): 53.

[4] Moehringer

[5] https://www.emory.edu/WithoutSanctuaryExhibit/press.html

[6] Emory may lose rare collection of lynching photos. (noteworthy news). (2003, January 16). Black Issues in Higher Education, 19(24), 10. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA97172553&v=2.1&u=mlin_b_simmcol&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=ee908feea3c1f6764377755f55ddd6af

Preserving Digital Materials

Digital preservation is an extremely important part of archives in the 21^st century. The need and desire to preserve history forever digitally is forever growing. The idea that just by scanning an image into a computer means that it will be forever intact excites a lot of people, but it is that easy? It is proving to be just the opposite, the more technologically advanced we become the harder it is to keep up with outdated files, and changing software formats.

            Brian Lavoie and Lorean Dempsey published an article, Thirteen Ways of Looking at… Digital Preservation, in this article they discuss many of the issues that face digital preservation are more than just ensuring that the software is kept up today but, “to look at digital preservation not just as a mechanism for ensuring bit sequences created today are renderable tomorrow, but as a process operating in concert with the full range of services supporting digital information environments, as well as the overarching economic, legal, and social contexts.”(Dempsey/Lavoie) This is a way of looking at what they refer to as “Digital Stewardship,” I have never really thought about the field in this sense.  

            As this practice grows and more it becomes not just a process in preservation but as its own important part of the digital world. “…The view that digital preservation is not an isolated process, but instead, one component of a broad aggregation of interconnected services, policies, and stakeholders which together constitute a digital information environment.” (Dempsey/Lavoie)

            One of the thirteen ways was to look at digital preservation as a selection process. Its just not possible to preserve everything within a repository, or every collection, it is the responsibly of the archivists to make the decision as to what should be digitally preserved. They discuss two different approaches to choosing what should be preserved while dealing with born digital files.

            The first is the “save now, preserve later” approach, this is only possible with born digital materials. It is the idea that by saving everything and then choosing at a later date what should be preserved. Digital storage is always declining in price, making this financially appealing, but assuring that you will be able to go back and preserve files from years before is never certain.

            The second strategy “selection” is a little more hands on than the previous approach but in the big picture made more sense to me. “Determining from the outset which digital materials should be preserved and taking steps to curate them throughout their lifecycle. The choice of which materials to preserve is a difficult one, and will depend on a number of factors, including institutional mission, cultural preferences, economic practicality, and risk management policies. The question will also hinge on the digital medium's impact on the scholarly and cultural record...is an e-mail discussion list, for example, part of the scholarly record, and if so, should it be preserved with as much care as the contents of a peer-reviewed journal?” (Dempsey/Lavoie)

            “Selection” can be applied born digital materials, as well as the selection of what physical items should be transferred to digital. Is it worth to take the time and money to taking a document and digitizing it?

            The article also addresses digital preservation as an ongoing activity. Before I was formally introduced to this aspect of archival practices I was under the impression that once it was preserved digitally one could just forget about it and move on to the next project, I couldn’t have been more wrong. This is where viewing digital preservation as a process not just a mechanism can really be seen. “More and more digital materials come under the stewardship of collecting institutions, preservation will become less like an event occurring at discrete intervals, and more like a process, proceeding relatively continuously over time. As a consequence, it will become more difficult to distinguish preservation activities from the routine, day-to-day management of digital materials.”(Dempsey/Lavoie)

            This article really opened up my eyes to the many aspects of digital stewardship, much more than just maintaining software, there is a whole other side to digital stewardship that exists much like traditional preservation.

“In this sense, the focus of digital preservation has shifted away from the need to take immediate action to "rescue" threatened materials, and toward the realization that perpetuating digital materials over the long-term involves the observance of careful digital asset management practices diffused throughout the information lifecycle.”(Dempsey/Lavoie)

Photographs as Evidence

“We cannot conceive of a more impartial and truthful witness than the sun, as its light stamps and seals the similitude of the wound on the photograph put before the jury; it would be more accurate than the memory of witnesses, and as the object of all evidence is to show truth, why should not this dumb witness show it?”

—   Franklin v. State of Georgia, 69 Ga. 36; 1882 Ga.

Introduction

Photographs are used constantly for evidence.  They can be used both informally and formally for a wide variety of purposes.  They can be used informally between family members to show what someone’s relatives looked like, how old someone was during a certain time period, the clothing during a certain era or they can be used formally to solve crimes or as historical value.   Photographs seem to be trusted more then any other medium, such as drawings or paintings.  “Unlike non-photographic depictions, photographs typically provide evidence specifically about what they depict...we are inclined to trust them in a way that we are not inclined to trust even the most accurate of drawings and paintings (Meskin, Cohen 1).”  Even though photographs are being trusted more than other mediums, there are still some reasons to question the authenticity of a photograph. In this study, I will look quickly at the history of photographs as evidence and analyze how this is changing and how authenticity is often questioned.

The History of Photographic Evidence

Photos have acted as historical evidence in America since around the time of the Civil War.   The Civil War was the first war that was photographically documented.   Mathew Brady was one of the main photographers during the civil war.  He first took pictures for parents in order to document soldiers who might be lost in the war.  This grew and he started hiring other photographers to go out and photograph civil war scenes.  

Since then photographs have been used to document wars, crime scenes, and expose corruption in communities.

Photos have also acted as forensic evidence for decades.  The earliest evidence of photographs as evidence in court cases goes back to prison inmates in the mid 1800s in Belgium and in Denmark.  These were just mug shots that were taken by amateurs.  In the 1870s the act of documenting criminals started spreading to other cities.  Professional photographers were then employed to take pictures of criminals.  This was the first time photography was seen as anything other than art.  Organizing these photographs into archives became a problem.  Rogues Galleries was on of the first forensic photographic archives to keep a record of these mug shots.  

Alphonse Bertillon was one of the earliest and a photographer who changed photographic documentation of criminals.  He published La Photographie Judiciaire in 1890, which contained rules for taking pictures of criminals.  He stated that the subjects should be in good lighting and that it should include a face and profile.  Bertillon also was the first photographer to document crime scenes.  

Photographs in Court

In order to accept a photograph in a court case the principal requirements are relevance and authentication.  In general the trial judge has to accept the photograph.  In some cases custody of the undeveloped film will be required.  If the authenticity is challenged the photograph can be revoked.  The person who introduces the photograph should be able to testify about why this photograph is accurate.

Digital Photography as Legal Evidence

Digital photographs have started to replace traditional photographs.  Although this is great in some ways, digital photography has also added a lot of challenges and complexities to the value and authenticity of photographs in court cases.  The ability to change and modify a digital photograph is so much easier.   Ten years ago an article in Whole Earth Review argued that photography as evidence will soon be finished.  With Photoshop and other software applications it is easy for a user to remove elements from a photograph, rearrange an image, change the color, contrast, light and shadow.   Although there are ways to manipulate a traditional photograph such as staging and dark room editing it is much faster and easier to manipulate a digital photograph. “Because a digital image can be precisely copied at will (until it is printed or displayed on a computer monitor) there exists no way to distinguish a copy from the original. And because digital data may be copied absolutely perfectly, any discrepancy between two versions of a single digital image is likely to be the result of intentional alteration, either innocent or malicious.”  This is a risk.  A witness who is testifying that a digital photograph is authentic and has not been altered is harder to prove and if it was proved that it was manipulated this could ruin a court case and they could get in trouble for fraudury.  Courts and legislatures are trying to establish new procedures to assure the accuracy of photographs.  Some people have argued that only the photographer should be able to validate the authenticity of a photograph in court.  This is difficult though because the photographer is not always available.  People are also suggesting attaching a digital signature to the file. 

Other Ways Photograph Evidence has evolved

With smaller cameras, smart phones, and the advancement of social media, more photographs are being taken then ever before.  Recently the public has been getting involved in solving crimes.  This is called crowd sourcing where they look to the public to aid forensic officers in solving crimes. Anyone walking around who has a cell phone can take a photograph in minutes and collect evidence.  One of the earliest examples of crowdsourcing was in April 2012, where police in Virginia were trying to investigate a fatal hit and run.  They were stuck until they decided to involve the general public and ask for help.  With the help from the publics’ photographs they were able to identify the car as being a Ford Pick up truck.  Another more recent example of crowdsourcing was with the Boston Marathon.  With photographs they were able to find pictures of people who looked out of place.  Although crowdsourcing is great for court cases and for evidence there is also some challenges.  Rumors can spread quickly as can inaccurate information.   One example of this was Richard Jewell a security guard who was accused of the bombings at the Atlantic Summer Olympic Games.  Although he was cleared he still dealt with harassment.  It also can make the public more aware of court cases and people can escape or ruin a mystery.

Conclusion

As digital photographs, smartphones and social media sites are growing it is changing the way photographs can be seen and used in court and as historical value.  The judicial system needs to adjust to this growing change and come up with new ways to adapt to this new social phenomenon.   

Sources Cited

Glynn, Casey. "Boston Marathon Bombing "Crowdsourcing:" How Citizens Are Using the Internet to Help Solve Crimes." CBS News. CBS News, 18 Apr. 2013. Web.

Jaeger, Jens. "Police and Forensic Photography." The Oxford Companion to the Photograph. Ed. Robin Lenman: Oxford University Press, 2005.

McCarvel, Roderick T. "You Won't Believe Your Eyes: Digital Photography as Legal Evidence." Digital Photography as Legal Evidence. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Apr. 2014.

Meskin, Aaron, and Jonathan Cohen. "Photographs as evidence." Photography and Philosophy. Essays on the Pencil of Nature (2008): 70-90.

Examining use in order to improve photographic archives

Archives are home to unique collections of photographs that are carefully preserved, arranged, and described. Recently, archives have made the digitization of thousands of these photos a priority that receives a considerable amount of time, attention, and resources. Studies have shown that the full potential of photographic archives is not being realized by users, despite the  opportunities that technology offers. 

Text vs. photo

"Migrant Mother" by Dorothea Lange (1936)

Photographic collections themselves, digital or physical, are historically more problematic for archivists than textual materials because the arrangement and description of photographs is not as standardized as the processing of textual materials. General archival practice suggests that any collection, despite its format, remains grouped together by its provenance, or creator, because this completeness provides a more accurate historical record of the activities of the creator; documents are more meaningful in context. Photographs also have more meaning when contextualized by description or relation to other materials, but there is also a long-standing practice of viewing or presenting a photo by itself, and making one image into a single representative icon. One example of this is how one photo of Dorothea Lange’s Migrant Mother became a symbol for the Great Depression, an economic period of 10-15 years that affected millions of people around the world. The entire collection of photos created by Dorothea Lange, and her biography, provide a more complete and historically accurate story about both Lange and the Migrant Mother photo.

Use dictates archival practice

Archival collections are grouped together by provenance because researchers use them for their value as a historical record. Use dictates archival practice and arrangement. As Guy Baxter  (2003) points out, libraries have traditionally catalogued on the item-level and treated the item as a source of information or enjoyment, preferring subject access over arrangement by provenance. Some archives adopted library practices when processing archival photos, preferring to arrange and describe individual photos by subject rather than provenance, in response to users searching for photos this way. Before archives went online, it was probably pretty easy for an archivist to observe how patrons used photos and to react accordingly to improve access and use, but online repositories separate the archivist from the digital user, creating distance between how digitization projects are designed and implemented, and the behaviors and needs of users. 

Use and user studies

User studies are not uncommon in the field of library and information science, but there is a lack of literature that focuses on the use of archival photographs; instead articles are often case studies detailing digitization projects from an archives’ point of view, or user studies focused on searching and retrieval in relation to digital resources. Paul Conway concluded his qualitative study, “Modes of Seeing: Digitized Photographic Archives and the Experienced User” (2010) by stating the need for quantitative studies of a similar nature, suggesting, “there is much to be learned about the actual use of digitized photographs by people with a variety of product orientations” (p. 459). Conway’s (2010) small study explored the use of the Library of Congress’s photo archives by seven diverse experienced users whose finished products included four books, a dissertation, “a dynamic website about the descendants of child laborers” (p. 447), and “an online database of digital images and metadata” (p. 447) of baseball players. Conway (2010) found that for these experienced users, the delivery system of the photos did not matter, and neither did the subject terms assigned by librarians; original order and historical context were more important.

Other studies focusing on different user groups suggest the opposite, which highlights the need for more comprehensive studies on all aspects of user behavior. Collins (1998) found in her study that users used mostly subject terms when requesting photos, with time and place being the next most frequently used terms, and the least-used terms were: genre, visual terms, format, and creator/provenance. Despite the difficulty of assigning subject terms to visual resources, multiple controlled vocabularies exist for this purpose, and technology allows for user-generated tags as well. The same system may not work for all users, but technology allows for more flexibility than paper and filing cabinets did in the past. The potential to increase use and improve accessibility is there, but archivists need to research more and plan better in order to use resources most efficiently. 

Valerie Harris and Peter Hepburn (2013) conducted a study that does address use, specifically the use of photos by historians, and the implications for archivists. Harris and Hepburn (2013) found that despite the increase in digitization efforts, the use of photos in scholarly historical journals did not increase between the years 2000 and 2009. Other studies cited by the authors (Harris and Hepburn, 2013) suggest that historians prefer more traditional methods of research, and when they do use photos, historians use photos as illustrations rather than as primary sources. Harris and Hepburn conclude their article with many suggestions to improve access and use for users of digital photographs: collaborating with historians and other users to shape digitization projects; using social networking sites such as Flickr to reach users where they already go; technology and visual literacy training for users; digitizing entire collections to improve their value as historical records (vs. selective digitization); marketing and promotion of digital resources; and examining other fields of scholarship, such as art history and media studies, to better encourage the use of visual resources. Some of these suggestions address increasing the use of photographs as historical record, which would be an effort to change user behavior; while others are a response to already existing user behavior. It is debatable how effective archivists could be at changing behavior, but for both types of suggestions, research and understanding of use and users are critical to success.

Diversity of users

Although historians are a primary user group of archives, there are other user groups with other needs. Ben Bergonzi’s (1995) market research study about the British Library’s photographic services showed “beyond doubt that a viable constituency of potential customers exists” (p. 1), although improvements needed to be made to increase actual use. “Penn State’s Visual Image User Study” (Pisciotta, Dooris, Frost, & Halm, 2005) also documents a “large, interdisciplinary, and growing market for the use of pictures- especially in digital form” (p. 33). Users seek images for commercial, academic, and personal use, and research and planning for future digitization projects must be undertaken to address the diverse needs of these audiences, in addition to a re-evaluation and possibly. Greater standardization for the processing of photographic archival materials may also be necessary to improve access and use of digital images since users prefer to search multiple repositories simultaneously. Archives are competing with the Google Image Search model, as several studies focused on students and faculty point out (Bridges & Edmunson-Morton, 2011) (Harley et al., 2006) (Waibel & Arcolio, 2005). 

(Harley et al., 2006, p. 4-24)

Many instructors use digital images for class presentations and to post online for their students (Harley et al., 2006). Even among instructors though, rates of usage, as well as requirements (such as the types and quality of images) differ across disciplines (Harley et al., 2006). 

(Harley et al., 2006, p. 4-38)

Conclusion
Evaluation and research are necessary for improving photographic archives, and improvement is necessary for survival and growth. Specifically, use and user studies are necessary for understanding how archival collections should be arranged and made accessible. Existing studies are few in number and diverse in findings, most likely because they look at different user groups with different needs. Even within large user groups there are sub-groups; digital technology is constantly improving and making it possible to meet the needs of all user populations, although this may also require stricter archival standards for photographs to allow convergence. But it all comes back to research, because standards also have to be based on user needs. Photographs are among the richest and also most marketable sources of information in archives, but the treasures that we have are often not easily accessible. The good news is, search strategies and accessibility are also derived from use! Studying the use of archival photographs can tell us so much about how to improve our archives, it is really time to start focusing more on this neglected aspect of research.

Sources

Baxter, G. (2003). The historical photograph: record, information source, object, resource. Art Libraries Journal, 28(55), 4-12.

Bergonzi, B. (1995). The use (and non-use) of the British Library's photographic services. Library Management, 16(7).

Bridges, L. M. & Edmunson-Morton, T. (2011). Image-seeking preferences among undergraduate novice researchers. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice, 6(1), 24-40.

Collins, K. (1998). Providing subject access to images: a study of user queries. The American Archivist, 61(1), 36-55.

Conway, Paul. (2010). Modes of seeing: digitized photographic archives and the experienced user. The American Archivist, 73, 425-462.

Harley, D. et al. (2006). Use and users of digital resources: a focus on undergraduate education in the humanities and social sciences. Center for studies in higher education.

Harris, V. & Hepburn, P. (2013). Trends in image use by historians and the implications for librarians and archivists. College & Research Libraries, 74(3), 272-287.

Pisciottoa, H. A., Dooris, M. J., Frost, J. & Halm, M. (2005). Penn State's visual image user study. Libraries and the Academy, 5(1), 33-58.

Lange, D. (1936). Migrant mother or Destitute pea pickers in California. Mother of seven children. Age thirty-two. Nipomo, California. Washington, D.C.: Farm Security Administration - Office of War Information Photograph Collection, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

Waibel, G. & Arcolio A. (2005). Out of the database, into the classroom: final report from the RLG Instructional Technology Advisory Group. Retrieved from http://www.oclc.org/research/activities/culturalmaterials/outofthedb.html

Added Interpretations

A historical photograph can have various interpretations depending on the individual who is studying it.  In the article, “Image and Artifact: The Photograph as Evidence in the Digital Age,” Martha A. Sandweiss discusses the importance of the photographer’s purpose in creating the image.  This information adds depth to the knowledge about the photograph and adds to the historian’s interpretation of the image (194). 

Judith Fryer Davidov discusses the photographs of the Japanese internment camps in an article for The Yale Journal of Criticism.  I found the section on Ansel Adams particularly interesting.  Davidov notes that Adams documented the internment in a “positive, ‘thoroughly…American’ way” (233).  According to Davidov, Adams’ intention is to reflect this act in a positive way.  But the historical analysis of this event in history is in stark contrast to this depiction.  This example shows how a photographer’s intent can be one thing, but the image can actually be something else.  But the knowledge of the photographer’s original intent is an important consideration when analyzing photographs, after all, the image would not exist without the act of the photographer deciding to take the image.

 

LC-A35-5-M-39. Mrs. Yaeko Nakamura and family buying toys with Fred Moriguchi, Manzanar Relocation Center / photograph by Ansel Adams. Part of: Adams, Ansel, 1902- Manzanar War Relocation Center photographs

In the same article, Davidov also writes about Toyo Miyatake, a photographer that was imprisoned at Manzanar.  While the subjects depicted in his photographs of Manzanar are not that different from Adams, the intent is completely different.  He was documenting something that was happening to him and his community.  In his pictures he emphasized the American aspects to show they were just the same as other U.S. citizens.  It was not conformity, it was them trying to have some aspect of their normal lives (Davidov 236).

 

Image of Toy Loan Center. Manzanar Relocation Center. Photo copyrighted by Toyo Miyatake .

In these cases, the photographer’s intention is what provides the context for the image.  The content is similar, but does not represent what the image was created for.  This information is essential to the understanding and the interpretation of the image.

In her article, Sandweiss also notes that an individual can go further by looking at the subject of the photograph’s interpretation (Sandweiss 194).  And the relationship between the photographer’s and the subject’s interpretation can lead to an even richer understanding of the image.

Sandweiss cites a few different articles that are in the same issue of The Journal of American History.  Two stories that are noted are the stories of the photograph of rescuer Anthony Fernandez and his search and rescue dog after the Oklahoma City bombing.  One story is from the perspective of the photographer, David Allen, and the other story is from the viewpoint of the subject, Anthony Fernandez.  It really adds a new dimension to ‘reading’ photographs when you have the different interpretations of the same image from people that are directly related to the image.

Allen’s article, “An Image from Oklahoma City,” goes through the events that led up to the photograph of the rescue worker.  This photograph has become such a powerful image during the tragedy of the Oklahoma City bombing.  He describes capturing the special moment between Fernandez and his dog.  He writes about his emotional connection with the image.  He notes that people have told him that the image “exemplifies the effort that went into trying to find survivors trapped in the Murrah Building”(Allen 177).  His description of the photograph really shows that he felt compassion and felt that the image reflected the toll the tragedy had taken on everyone in the community.  He was thankful for this man’s rescue efforts.

Anthony“Skip” Fernandez III rests and protects his search and rescue canine, Aspen,after a twelve-hour shift searching for survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. April 26, 1996.  Photo by David Allen. From Journal of American History.

After I read Allen’s account of the photograph, I read about the photograph from the subject’s perspective, Anthony Fernandez.  Fernandez also describes the events leading up to the time of the photograph.  He does not remember the photograph being taken, and he even describes actively protecting his dog, Aspen, from having her photograph taken (Fernandez 182).  His reaction to the photograph was one of disbelief and a desire for it to go away.  He did not want or feel that he deserved the attention.  But the image had struck a chord with viewers.  Sandweiss notes that the image became an “embarrassment” for Fernandez and singles him out above the other rescue workers (Sandweiss 194).  His story truly adds a new light to the reading of this image and allows for a new depth of understanding for the viewer/historian.

A similar image to this one is the image of firefighter Mike Kehoe taken on 9/11.  The photograph was taken by someone evacuating one of the Twin Towers while Kehoe was climbing up the stairway in the line of duty.  Mike Kehoe became the face of the bravery shown by firefighters that day.  Shortly after this photograph was taken, Kehoe and others were given the order to evacuate (Morse).  Kehoe is quoted as saying “I saved one person that day, and that was me, and it was by running for my life” (Morse).  While everyone saw Kehoe as a hero, he did not feel himself to be one.  Does this change how we perceive this photograph?  Does it change the meaning of the photograph?  I think that his feelings about the photograph do not diminish the powerful nature of the photograph.  People will still consider him a hero.  His narrative adds more to the photograph, we see the frightened look in his eyes and yet he still goes up the stairs.  His perspective adds more depth of feeling to the interpretation of the image.  I do not have the photographer’s story on this image, but it is interesting to see the difference in how the viewers have interpreted this image and how that contrasts with Kehoe’s own vision of himself that day.

Mike Kehoe as he ascends Tower One. Photo by John Labriola.

Understanding images in an archive can be challenging at times.  Sandweiss has brought up some interesting points and suggests that having the photographer’s perspective and the subject’s perspective add a new level of understanding to an image.  From the examples I looked at, these interpretations add important information to the context of the image and its creation.  This information would not be available if all we look at is what the image is of.  We see this in the photographs of Manzanar, while they are taken in the same location and have similar subject content, the information about their creation has become the important distinguishing factor in their interpretation.  In the case of the photographs of the rescue workers, their own accounts add a new depth that is rarely available for historic images.  But these narratives give a voice to the subject and provide a different interpretation than the one intended by the photographer.  This amount of information is a valuable asset to have for any historian, and if it is possible, it is important to note all available interpretations and contexts of an image for future researchers.

References:

Allen, David. "An Image From Oklahoma City." Journal Of American History 94.1 (2007): 172-178.

Davidov, Judith Fryer. The Color of My Skin, the Shape of My Eyes": Photographs of the Japanese-American Internment by Dorothea Lange, Ansel Adams, and Toyo Miyatake. The Yale Journal of Criticism. 9, no. 2 (Fall 1996): 223-244.

Fernandez III, Anthony. "Remembering The Oklahoma City Bombing." Journal Of American History 94.1 (2007): 179-182.

Morse, Jodie. “Gory in the Glare.” Time. 158/159. 28/1 (2001):96.

Sandweiss, Martha A. "Image And Artifact: The Photograph As Evidence In The

            Digital Age." Journal Of American History 94.1 (2007): 193-202.